The development and validation of a teacher-reported low-level classroom disruption scale (LLCD-S)

Journal article

Cogswell, S., Carr, A., Abbott, N. and Monks, C. P. 2020. The development and validation of a teacher-reported low-level classroom disruption scale (LLCD-S). Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties. 25 (3-4), pp. 230-243. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2020.1816651

Publication dates
Authors	Cogswell, S., Carr, A., Abbott, N. and Monks, C. P.
Abstract	Low-level classroom disruption (LLCD) is characterised by pupils swinging on chairs, whispering or fidgeting in class. This paper provides initial data on the development and validation of the teacher-rated Low-Level Classroom Disruption Scale (LLCD-S), with two samples of primary pupils. Exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 (N=120) revealed one factor accounting for 61% of the variance; supported by confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 (N=274), with one factor accounting for 63% of the variance. Both studies reported high Cronbach’s alpha values of .82 and .93. The evidence supports LLCD being a unidimensional construct, measured by the eight item LLCD-S. Weak convergence validity was found between the LLCD-S and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire’s (SDQ, Goodman, 1997) externalising behaviours: conduct problems and hyperactivity. This preliminary evidence indicates that LLCD-S is a valid and reliable measure of low-level classroom disruption. Further research is needed to test the utility of the LLCD-S across different levels of education, cultures and as a pupil-reported measure.
Keywords	Low-Level classroom disruption scale (LLCS-S); Teacher-report scale; Scale validation; Primary schools; Primary education
Year	2020
Journal	Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties
Journal citation	25 (3-4), pp. 230-243
Publisher	Taylor & Francis
ISSN	1363-2752
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)	https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2020.1816651
Official URL	http://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2020.1816651
Online	12 Sep 2020
Print	01 Oct 2020
Publication process dates
Accepted	27 Jul 2020
Deposited	16 Sep 2020
Accepted author manuscript	Revision Development and Validation of the LLCD-S_FINAL.pdf
Output status	Published
References	Aloe, A.M., Amo. L. C., & Shanahan, M. E. (2014). Classroom management, self-efficacy and burnout: A multivariate meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 26(1), 101-126. doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9244-0 Allwood, M., Allen, K., Price, A., Hayes, R., Edwards, V., Ball, S.,…Ford, T. (2018). The reliability and validity of the pupil behaviour questionnaire: a child classroom behaviour assessment tool. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 23(4), 361-371. doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2018.1478945 Bartlett, M. (1954). Significance test for sphericity of a normal n-variate distribution. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 16, 296-298. Beaman, R., & Wheldall, K. (1997). Teacher perception of troublesome classroom behaviour: A review of recent research. Special Education Perspectives, 6, 49-56. Bennett, T. (2017). Creating a Culture: How School leaders Can Optimise behaviour. UK Department for Education. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/behaviour-in-schools Blasé, J. J. (1986). A qualitative analuysis of sources of teacher stress: Consequences for performance. American Educational Research Journal, 23(1), 13-40. doi.org/10.3102/00028312923001013 Breslau, J., Miller, E., Breslau, N., Bohnert, K., Lucia, V., & Schweitzer, J. (2009). The impact of early behaviour disturbances on academic achievement in high school. Paediatrics, 123(6), 1472-1476. doi:10.1542/peds2008-1406 Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (2000). Disruptive Student Behaviour. Perceived Self-Efficacy and Teacher Burnout. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED450120.pdf Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological assessment, 7(3), 309. Clunies-Ross, P., Little, E., & Kienhuis, M. (2008). Self-reported and actual use of proactive and reactive classroom management strategies and their relationship with teacher stress and student behaviour. Educational Psychology, 28(6), 694-710. doi:10.1080/01443410802206700 Department of Education. (2019, May). School Backed to Tackle Bad Behaviour. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/schools-backed-to-tackle-bad-beha... Duncan, G.J., Dowsett, C.J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., …& Sexton, H. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428 Elton, B., R. (1989). Discipline in Schools: report of the Committee of Enquiry chaired by Lord Elton. HMSO. Retrieved from:hhtp://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/elton/elton1989.html Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Worsham, M. E. (2009). Classroom management for middle and high school teachers. (6th ed.), Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA Esturgo-Deu, M, E., & Sala-Roca, J. (2010). Disruptive behaviour of students in primary education and emotional intelligence. Teaching and teacher education, 26(4), 830- 837. doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.10.020 Eyberg, S. M., & Pincus, D. (1999). Eyberg child behaviour inventory professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resource, Ins.: Odessa. Ford, T., Edwards, V., Sharkey, S., Ukoumunne, O. C., Byford, S., Norwich, B., & Logan, S. (2012). Supporting teachers and children in schools: the effectiveness and cost- effectiveness of the Incredible Years teacher classroom management programme in primary school children: a cluster randomised controlled trail, with parallel economic and process evaluations. BMC public health, 12(1), 719. Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). Staff burn-out. Journal of social issues, 30(1), 159-165 retrieved from hhtps://doi.org/10.111/j.1540-4560.1974.tb00706.x Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 38(5), 581-586. doi:org.10.1111/j.1469- 7610.1997.tb01545.x Goodman, R., & Scott, S. (1999). Comparing the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Child Behaviour Checklist: is small beautiful? Journal of abnormal child psychology, 27(1), 17-24. Hall, N., & Hayden, C. (2007). Is ‘hate crime’ a relevant and useful way of conceptualising some forms of school bullying. International Journal on Violence and Schools, 3, 3- 24. Harms, M. B., Zayas, V., Meltzoff, A. N., & Carlson, S. M, (2014). Stability of executive function and predictions to adaptive behaviour from middle childhood to pre- adolescence. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 331. doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00331 Hayden, C., & Dunne, S. (2001). Outside, looking in: children’s and families’ experiences of exclusion from school. The Children’s Society. Haydn, T., Stephen, A., Arthur, J., & Hunt, M. (2014). Learning to teach history in the secondary school: A companion to school experience. Routledge. Howitt, D., & Cramer, D. (2017). Understanding statistics in psychology with SPSS. Pearson Higher Ed. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modelling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1-55. doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 Kaiser, H. (1970). A second generation Little Jiffy. Psychmetrika, 35, 401-15 Kerr, M. M., & Valenti, M. W. (2009). Control from withn the classroom: Crises or conversations. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 17(4), 30-34. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/profile.Mary_Kerr2/publication/234674640_Controls_from_wi thin_the_Classroom_Crises_or_Conversations/links/57acf9a008ae3765c3baffba.pdf Kreisberg, H. L. (2017). Making sense of low-level behaviours in the elementary classroom: An interpretative phenomenological analysis (Doctoral dissertation). Northeastern University. Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual review of psychology, 52(1), 397-422.doi:org/10.1146/aantev.psych.52.1.397 McCrae, R. R., Kurtz, J. E., Yamagata, S., & Terracciano, A. (2011). Internal consistency, retest reliability, and their implications for personality scale validity. Personality and social psychology review, 15(1), 28-50.doi:10.1177/1088868310366253 Munn, P., Sharp, S., Lloyd, G., Macleod, G., McCluskey, G., Brown, J., & Hamilton, L. (2009). Behaviour in Scottish schools 2009. Edinburgh: Scottish Government. Muthen, L. K., & Muthen, B. (2019). Mplus. The comprehensive modelling program for applied researchers: user’s guide, 5. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. McGraw-Hill Book Company, pp. 86-113, 190-255 Office for Standards in Education, Child Services and Skills. (2014). Below the Radar: Low Level Disruption in the Country’s Classrooms. Retrieved from http://www.gov.uk/governemtn/publications/below-the-radar-low-level-... the-country’s-classrooms Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children’s Behaviour Questionnaire. Child development, 72(5), 394-408. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00355 Scott, T. M., Hirn, R. G., & Alter, P. J. (2014). Teacher instruction as a predictor for student engagement and disruptive behaviours. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 58(4), 193-200. doi:10.1080/1045988X.2013.787588 Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2017). Still motivated to teach? A study of school context variables, stress and job satisfaction among teachers in senior high school. Social Psychology of Education, 20(1), 15-37. doi.org/10.1007/s11218-016-9363-9 Slade, M., Thornicroft, G., & Glover, G. (1999). The feasibility of routine outcome measures In mental health. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 34(5), 243-249. Steer, A. (2005). Learning behaviour: The report of the practitioners’ group on school behaviour and discipline. Nottingham: DfES. Retrieved from: www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/pdfs/2005-steer-report-learning- behaviuor.pdf Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in cognitive science, 9(2), 69-74. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005 Sullivan, A. M., Johnson, B., Owens, L., & Conway, R. (2014). Punish them or engage them? Teachers’ views of unproductive student behaviours in the classroom. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(6), 43. doi:10.14221/ajte.2014v39n6.6 Swinson, J. (2010). Working with a secondary school to improve social relationships, pupil behaviour, motivation and learning. Pastoral Care in Education 28, no. 3 (2010): 181-194. doi/abs/10.1080/02643944.2010.504221 Wallace, S. (2017). Behaviours management: Getting it right in a week. Critical Publishing Wheldall, K. (1991). Managing troublesome classroom behaviour in regular schools: A positive teaching perspective. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 38(2), 99-116.doi:10.1080/0156655910380202 Wheldall, K., & Merrett, F. (1988). Which classroom behaviours do primary school teachers say they find the most troublesome? Educational Review, 40(1), 13-27. doi.org/10.1080/0013191880400102 Wilshaw, M. (2016). Speech: Sir Michael Wilshaw’s speech at the Education Policy Institute conference. Retrieved from: https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/sir-micheal- wilshaws-speech-at-the-education-policy-institute-conference Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescent relations with mothers, fathers and friends. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Permalink -

https://repository.canterbury.ac.uk/item/8w317/the-development-and-validation-of-a-teacher-reported-low-level-classroom-disruption-scale-llcd-s

Download files

Accepted author manuscript

Revision Development and Validation of the LLCD-S_FINAL.pdf

283
total views
301
total downloads
3
views this month
2
downloads this month

Export as

Related outputs

Parent-child interactions during joint engagement with touchscreen technology: A comparison of younger versus older toddlers

Carr, A. and Dempster, T. 2021. Parent-child interactions during joint engagement with touchscreen technology: A comparison of younger versus older toddlers. Infant Behavior & Development. 64, p. 101587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101587

Designing IoT resources to support outdoor play for children

Dylan, Thomas, Wood, Gavin, Durrant, Abigail C., Vines, John, Torres, Pablo E., Ulrich, Philip I. N., Cukurova, Mutlu, Carr, Amanda, Çerçi, Sena and Lawson, Shaun 2020. Designing IoT resources to support outdoor play for children. in: ACM. pp. 1-12

Designing for digital playing out

Wood, G., Dylan, T., Durrant, A., Torres, P., Ulrich, P., Carr, A., Cukurova, M., Downey, D., McGrath, P., Balaam, M., Ferguson, A., Vines, J. and Lawson, S. 2019. Designing for digital playing out. in: Brewster, S. and Fitzpatrick, G. (ed.) CHI '19: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems New York ACM. pp. 1-15

Minding the children: a longitudinal study of mental state talk, theory of mind and behavioural adjustment from age 3 to age 10.

Carr, A., Slade, L., Yuill, N., Sullivan, S. and Ruffman, T. 2018. Minding the children: a longitudinal study of mental state talk, theory of mind and behavioural adjustment from age 3 to age 10. Social Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12315

Scaffolding: integrating social and cognitive perspectives on children’s learning at home

Yuill, N. and Carr, A. 2018. Scaffolding: integrating social and cognitive perspectives on children’s learning at home. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 88 (2), pp. 171-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12227

Parent support for very young children’s interaction with digital technology

Carr, A. 2017. Parent support for very young children’s interaction with digital technology.

Bystander responses to bias-based bullying in schools: a developmental intergroup approach

Palmer, S. and Abbott, N. 2017. Bystander responses to bias-based bullying in schools: a developmental intergroup approach. Child Development Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12253

Improving the student experience in higher education: an action research approach to implementing collaborative learning strategies

Spruin, L. and Abbott, N. 2017. Improving the student experience in higher education: an action research approach to implementing collaborative learning strategies. Innovative Practice in Higher Education. 3, pp. 65-90.

A study in to the effectiveness of a postural care training programme aimed at improving knowledge, understanding, and confidence in parents and school staff

Hotham, S., Hamilton-West, K., Hutton, E., King, A. and Abbott, N. 2017. A study in to the effectiveness of a postural care training programme aimed at improving knowledge, understanding, and confidence in parents and school staff. Child: Care, Health and Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12444

Mathematics, mastery and metacognition: how adding a creative approach can support children in maths

Bonnett, V., Yuill, N. and Carr, A. 2017. Mathematics, mastery and metacognition: how adding a creative approach can support children in maths. Educational and Child Psychology. 34 (1), pp. 83-93.

Digital infants: the effect of touch screen technology on focused attention and executive function

Carr, A. 2016. Digital infants: the effect of touch screen technology on focused attention and executive function.

The evaluation of a summer youth scheme for children with disabilities: a brief report on the findings from an evaluation of the Special Needs Advisoryand Activities Project (SNAAP)

Spruin, L. and Abbott, N. 2014. The evaluation of a summer youth scheme for children with disabilities: a brief report on the findings from an evaluation of the Special Needs Advisoryand Activities Project (SNAAP).

Examining the experiences of a short break scheme amongst adolescents with disabilities (service users) and their parents

Spruin, L., Abbott, N. and Holt, N. 2017. Examining the experiences of a short break scheme amongst adolescents with disabilities (service users) and their parents. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 64, pp. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2017.1348599

What makes a young assertive bystander? The effect of intergroup contact, empathy, cultural openness, and in-group bias on assertive bystander intervention intentions

Abbott, N. and Cameron, L. 2014. What makes a young assertive bystander? The effect of intergroup contact, empathy, cultural openness, and in-group bias on assertive bystander intervention intentions. Journal Of Social Issues. 70 (1), pp. 167-182. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12053

Towards systems that care: a conceptual framework based on motivation, metacognition and affect

du Boulay, B., Avramides, K., Luckin, R., Martínez-Mirón, E., Rebolledo Méndez, G. and Carr, A. 2010. Towards systems that care: a conceptual framework based on motivation, metacognition and affect. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 20 (3), pp. 197-229. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAI-2010-0007

How mastery and performance goals influence learners’ metacognitive help-seeking behaviours when using Ecolab II.

Carr, A., Luckin, R., Yuill, N. and Avramides, K. 2012. How mastery and performance goals influence learners’ metacognitive help-seeking behaviours when using Ecolab II. in: Aleven, V. and Azvedo, R. (ed.) International Handbook of Metacognition and Learning Technologies New York Springer.